Modulatory factors of grammar learning in second and third languages

Abstract

In the current technological era, connection among people spread throughout the globe is the norm more than the exception and knowing languages has become a necessary tool for professional, educational, and social endeavors. To strengthen foreign language knowledge and use, many educational systems have implemented English courses as a core subject. For instance, the Spanish educational system has had bilingual programs since 2004 in elementary and secondary schools (Palacios-Hidalgo, 2020). Nevertheless, while younger generations have the opportunity, tools, and motivation to acquire English to a high level of proficiency, successfully learning a language during adulthood is challenging and subject to strong variation among individuals. Advocates of the critical period hypotheses have focused much of their research on evidencing the difficulties in successfully achieving native-like proficiency after a certain age (Johnson & Newport, 1994; Hartshorne et al., 2018). However, language learning research has focused on understanding the variability associated with successful learning (Van Patten & Williams, 2015). As a result of these recent developments, different factors have been found to modulate language learning during adulthood, both intrinsic and extrinsic to the learner. Individual differences in cognitive abilities, especially those associated with memory abilities, cognitive (executive) control, and general intelligence, have been investigated in terms of their roles as intrinsic modulatory factors in successful learning. The main goal of this dissertation is to explore the complex interaction between intrinsic (individual differences) and extrinsic (learning condition, difficulty/complexity of the material, and testing time) factors in successful grammar learning during adulthood.