An early lead-smelting tradition in Northeast Iberia: A short-lived innovation of the second millennium BC

Abstract

The polymetallic origins and non-linear development of early metallurgy have only recently attracted attention. Within this framework, we present the earliest direct evidence of lead smelting in Iberia, dated to the first third of the 2nd millennium cal. BC at Minferri (Catalonia). More widely, we identify a lead-making tradition transmitted from Southern France that emerged alongside copper metallurgy in the late 3rd milennium BC. Abandoned after ca. 500 years, this constitutes a rare instance of early innovation failure. This research contributes to broader debates on divergent paths of socio-technological development and brings overdue attention to early lead-smelting practices.