Integrating Deep Learning and Real-Time Imaging to Visualize In Situ Self-Assembly of Self-Healing Interpenetrating Polymer Networks Formed by Protein and Polysaccharide Fibers

Abstract

Fibrillar protein hydrogels are promising sustainable biomaterials for biomedical applications, but their practical use is often limited by insufficient mechanical strength and stability. To address these challenges, we transformed native proteins into amyloid fibrils (AFs) and incorporated a fibrillar polysaccharide, phytagel (PHY), to engineer interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) hydrogels. Notably, we report for the first time the formation of an amyloid-based hydrogel from apoferritin (APO), with PHY reinforcing the network’s mechanical integrity. In situ self-assembly of APO within the PHY matrix yields fully natural, biopolymer-based IPNs. Rheological analyses confirm synergistic interactions between AF and PHY fibers, with the composite hydrogels exhibiting significantly enhanced viscoelastic moduli compared with individual components. The AF−PHY hydrogels also demonstrate excellent self-healing behavior, rapidly restoring their storage modulus after high-strain deformation. A major advancement of this study is the application of deep learning (DL)- based image analysis, using convolutional neural networks, to automate the identification, segmentation, and quantification of fibrillar components in high-resolution scanning electron microscopy images. This AI-driven method enables precise differentiation between AF and PHY fibers and reveals the three-dimensional microarchitecture of the IPN, overcoming key limitations of traditional image analysis. Complementary real-time confocal laser scanning microscopy, with selective fluorescent labeling of protein and polysaccharide components, further validates the IPN structure of the hybrid hydrogels. Our results demonstrate that DL significantly enhances structural characterization and provides insights into gelation processes. This approach sets a new guide for the analysis of complex soft materials and underlines the potential of AF−PHY hydrogels as mechanically robust, self-healing, and fully sustainable biomaterials for biomedical engineering applications.